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AFRICAN
UNION MECHANISMS FOR CRISIS MANAGEMENT: ISSUES AND PROSPECTS
ABSTRACT
Since the end of the Cold War, the world has
witnessed numerous conflicts most of which have been in Africa. This trend runs
contrary to the general expectation that the post Cold War era would be free
from conflicts. Africa is plagued by conflicts, most of which are intra-state
in nature. Thus, the regional organisation – the AU had its hands full of
crises requiring resolution. The AU as an organization came into being in 2004,
having transformed from the OAU. These conflicts which have occurred mostly in
sub-Saharan Africa have been protracted; thus calling to question the
effectiveness of the AU mechanisms for crisis management. This study was
therefore set out with the purpose of examining the AU mechanisms for crisis
management. It specifically identified the challenges confronting the AU
mechanisms for crisis management in Africa and suggested prospects in enhancing
the mechanisms for managing crisis. A
combination of questionnaires and unstructured interviews of relevant
personalities in the area of the research were conducted and administered.
These interviews, coupled with studies of other relevant literature in the
field of study revealed that there were obvious signs of determination by the
AU to improve its capability in crisis management. This is evident in the
provisions of the AU Constitutive Act and the PSC which serves as the main
mechanism for crisis management. The PSC is assisted by the NEPAD initiative,
ASF, Panel of the Wise and CEWS in this vein.
It was established in the study
that the AU mechanisms was
however still hampered by the lack of political will, lack of logistics,
financial sustainability and external influence. Other challenges are mistrust
among African leaders and lack of well trained and motivated national
militaries in some African States. The study recommended that, for an
effective mechanism for crisis management to work, the AU should increase the budget for the PSC as well as
further levying of member states in order to make up for deficiency in funding
crisis management. It was also recommended that the AU develops a political
will in managing crisis in the African continent.
CHAPTER
ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
The history of Africa has been replete
with conflicts. Conflicts have ripped through the continent such that in Africa
today, crisis in human security has emerged. The resultant effects are
increasing internal conflicts, frustrated aspirations and rising social
tensions. Other effects are the displacement of people from their societies,
value systems as well as loss of governments and institutions. The need to rid
the continent from the scourge of conflicts and crises necessitated the birth
of the Organization for African Unity (OAU) on 25 May 1963 (Obasanjo, 2005).
The initial OAU mechanism for crisis
management in Africa was the Commission for Mediation, Conciliation and
Arbitration (CMCA), which came into effect in 1964. However, the post Cold War
era brought about a new political stability and social economic development.
Thus, the OAU attempted to change its mechanism for crisis management by
adopting the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution
(MCPMR) in 1993 (Lemarchand).
This mechanism was found to be deficient in some areas especially, the power to
interfere in the internal affairs of member states. This was amongst the reasons
for the transformation of the Organization into the African Union (AU) in 2004 (Imobighe, 2003:67). Today, Africa is plagued by conflicts
most of which are intra state in nature. Thus, the regional organisation, AU
has its hands full of crises requiring resolution. These conflicts and crises
which occurred mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa have been protracted, thus posing
serious challenges to the AU.
The drift by some African States into
unmitigated chaos became a constant source of worry to many leaders in the
continent and the international community at large. The series of conferences
and summits held across the continent reflected this. It was at an Ordinary
Summit of the Assembly of Heads of State and Government in 2001 that the Constitutive
Act of AU was adopted by 53 member states of the OAU in Lome, Togo (Salim, 2002:18). Furthermore, the
desire for a stronger organisation that would be capable of handling the
numerous conflicts that plagued the continent provided the initiative that
paved the way for the birth of the AU. This process began in Sirte, Libya in
September 1999 during an extraordinary summit of the OAU (Salim, 2002:23).
The
AU, thus aimed at achieving greater unity and solidarity between the African countries
and its people, defending the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence
of its member states. It was also to accelerate the political and
socio-economic integration of the continent; and promote peace, security and
stability on the continent (Constitutive Act of the AU, Article 4).
The
Constitutive Act of the Union was then to enter into force 30 days after the
deposit of the instrument of ratification by two-thirds of the member states of
the OAU. Consequently, the Act
entered into force on 26 May 2000 after Nigeria deposited its instrument of
ratification with the OAU Secretariat on 26 April 2000; being the thirty-sixth member
state to do so (Constitutive Act of the AU, Article 4).
At
its inception, the AU in a bid to realise collective security in the continent
set out certain principles to guide the union. The principles and values
informing the African Collective Security Policy include, inter-alia, the
principles contained in Article 4 of the Constitutive Act of the AU.
The indivisibility of the security of
African States is made such that the security of one African country is
inseparably linked to the security of other African countries, and the African
continent as a whole. Accordingly, any threat or aggression on one African
country is deemed to be a threat or aggression on the others and the continent
as a whole. These threats are then brought to the immediate attention of the
Assembly of the Union or the Peace and Security Council (PSC) for decision and
action as appropriate, in conformity with the AU principles and objectives (Constitutive
Act of the AU, Article 4).
Conscious of the inadequacy of the clause
of non-interference
in the affairs of member states, a new clause in the Constitutive Act of the AU
expressed the right of the Union to intervene. This is in pursuant to a
decision of the Assembly in respect of grave circumstances, namely war crimes,
genocide and crimes against humanity. The clause resulted from experiences
gained in previous conflict management attempts in the continent under the OAU.
The AU has been involved in the
management of the Sudanese, Ethiopia-Eritrea and the Democratic Republic of the
Congo (DRC) crises among others in Africa. However, with the eventual
transformation of the OAU into AU, crises management and peace support operations
remain a process. This in the opinion of
many still requires extra efforts on the part of the organisation. Salim Ahmed
Salim, a former Secretary General of OAU succinctly made the point when he
declared:
…with the creation of the
mechanism for conflict prevention, management in Cairo in 1993, a view and
significantly different vision emerged in one continent. The creation of that
mechanism signified a change from the position of “don’t interfere” to one
“collective concern” for the peace, security and stability of the people of our
continent. The doctrine became what happens to my neighbour is my
responsibility also”. Since then, the issue of internal conflicts has become a
matter of continental concern (Constitutive Act of the AU, Article 4).
The
management of conflicts and crises by Africans has thus presented an
opportunity on the emergence of the AU. Though the AU is still new, the
expectations of Africans in the ability of the organisation to manage conflicts
and crises, is indeed very high. It remains to be seen if this optimism can be
translated into effective conflict and crises management which would lead to
successful conflict resolution.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
The African continent has been synonymous
with conflicts even before the formation of the OAU and now AU. This situation
cannot be divorced from historical factors surrounding the formation of nation
states in Africa prominent among which was the partition of the continent by the
European powers at the Berlin Conference of 1884 to 1885. This conference was
to change the course of events in Africa. It brought people with different and
antagonistic ideologies together under single states without putting in place
mechanisms to ensure harmonious existence among them. This was the starting
point of recurrent conflicts and crises in Africa.
In the Post Cold War era, African
conflicts and crises have been largely intrastate except the Ethiopia-Eritrea
conflict and that of the DRC (Salim, 2002:33). They have also been too frequent
that the AU appears overwhelmed. The recurrence of conflicts in the continent
has become a factor for the assumption that AU mechanisms for conflict
management are perhaps deficient in some respects.
If the AU must improve on its mechanisms
for conflict management and peace support operations, the challenges
confronting the organisation need to be identified with a view to working out a
better approach. It is in this context that this research examines the issues
and prospects of AU crisis management.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH
The following under listed are the
objectives of this research:
(1) To
discuss the AU mechanisms for crisis and conflict management in Africa.
(2) To
discuss the challenges of the current AU conflict management mechanisms.
(3) Examine
the prospects of enhancing AU mechanisms for crises management in the
continent.
(4) To
suggest possible ways on how best to improve the AU mechanisms for crises
management.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The importance of this study is
appreciable in the fact that:
(1) The
AU Secretariat staff and policy makers would benefit from it as it presents
viable prospects to address issues raised.
(2) It
will also contribute to the existing body of knowledge on crises management by
the AU in Africa.
(3) It
will serve as reference material for further research in the area of crises
management.
1.5 SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH
This research covers events in Africa regarding
conflicts from 2000 to 2008. This period
provides room for assessing the efficiency of AU mechanisms for crisis
management from her inception to date.
1.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE
RESEARCH
The study faced with some limitations.
This arose from the inability of the researcher to interview key individuals
who are stakeholders in crisis management under the auspices of the AU. However,
a few interviews of past officials of the AU and some diplomats as well as
military personnel who had participated in AU Peace Support Operations (PSOs)
assisted in the attainment of the research objectives.
1.7 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
This study answered the following
research questions:
(1) Is
there any significant relationship between AU mechanisms for crisis management
and crisis management in Africa?
(2) Are
AU mechanisms for crisis management in Africa effective?
(3) Are
there challenges and prospects of AU mechanisms for crisis management in
Africa?
(4) Are
there other measures that could be adopted by the AU to make its mechanisms for
crisis management more effective in the continent?
1.8 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
The study tested the following
hypotheses:
(1) HO -
The AU mechanisms for crisis management is not faced with challenges in
managing crisis in Africa.
(2) HA - The AU mechanisms
for crisis management is faced with challenges in managing crisis in Africa.
1.9 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The research needs to identify the issues
and prospects of AU mechanisms for crisis management. To do this, an authentic and reliable
research methodology is needed. This
focuses on the steps taken by the researcher in conducting the study. This includes the identification of
variables, research design, area of study, population, sample and sampling
techniques. The methodology also covers
the instruments for data collection, validation and reliability of the instruments,
methods of data collection, method of data analysis and weaknesses of the
methodology.
1.9.1 Identification
of the Variables
The variables in this research are
qualitative in nature because they vary in kind rather than in magnitude. The
independent variable is crisis management while the dependent variable is AU
mechanism. Therefore, the more efficient AU Mechanism is the more effective
crisis management in Africa will be.
1.9.2 Research Design
Due to the
complex nature of crisis management in Africa, the researcher adopted a combination
of historical, descriptive and experimental research methods in this work. The historical method allowed the researcher
to determine what led to existing mechanisms for crisis management by the AU
while the descriptive method made it possible to determine the nature of
existing mechanisms. The descriptive research design includes survey research,
case study, developmental studies, correlation studies and causal comparative
or ex-post factor studies. However, the survey method was used in this study. This enabled the researcher to administer
questionnaires to many respondents concurrently.
The experimental method enabled the
researcher to employ both the historical and descriptive values to discover the
challenges of AU. It also assisted the researcher
to predict the prospect of crisis management by the AU as well as make some
recommendations. Furthermore, it enabled
the researcher to identify and test the cause and effect relationship between
the independent and the dependent variables.
1.9.3 Sample and
Sampling Techniques
The
sample used in this study included military personnel that participated in AU
Peace Support Operations (PSO). Others include diplomats, university lecturers
and persons with relevant experience in the field of crisis management. Thus, stratified random sampling technique
was used for selection of sample from the population. This was to ensure that relevant
characteristics like social status, ranks, participation in AU PSOs and other
important factors were considered. The
selection also considered educational background of the sample population. This ensured that each category of the sample
was proportionally represented. The
sampling technique used in this work therefore guaranteed the representation of
all relevant interest groups.
1.9.4 Instruments of Data Collection
A combination of researcher-designed questionnaire and
unstructured interviews were used for data collection. A sample copy of the questionnaire and the
questions asked during the unstructured interviews are at Appendixes II and III
respectively. The questionnaire was
divided into two sections. The first
section contained information on the personal profile of the respondent. The personal profile information included
age, occupation, rank, academic qualification and participation in AU PSO. The second section consisted a twenty nine
item questionnaire structure, placed in a four point-scale of Strongly Agree
(SA), Agree (A), Strongly Disagree (SD) and Disagree (D).
1.9.5 Method of Data Collection
The data used in this work were collected through
unstructured interviews, discussions, consultations and administration of
questionnaires. The research adopted the structured interview method for two
main reasons. Firstly, crisis management
is a government policy and therefore a sensitive national and international
issue. Hence, a respondent might not
likely accept responsibility for some comments that could have emanated from a
structured interview. The unstructured interview therefore allowed some of the
sources to address the research questions using their words. Secondly, some primary sources due to their
busy schedule may lack time to complete the structured questionnaires. Hence, the interview assisted the researcher
in obtaining information from busy resource persons.
The structured questionnaires, on the
other hand, were used, to permit for easier scientific analysis of the research
findings. They also assisted in
revealing different view points thereby taking care of likely biases that might
be contained in some of the secondary sources.
Data for this study were, therefore, obtained from both primary and
secondary sources.
Primary data was derived from
unstructured interviews with the former Ambassador and Special Representative
of Nigeria to the UN, Chief Arthur Mbanefo. The former Nigerian Defence Attache
to Ethiopia and member of the AU Military Staff Centre, Brig Gen Ahmad T
Jibrin, a former Head of Mission to the African Mission in Sudan (AMIS),
Ambassador Babagana Kingibe as well as Capt Aliyu S Aliyu, a onetime
Information Analysis Officer of the AU Darfur Integrated Task Force were also
interviewed The researcher interviewed these diplomats and official because of
the roles they might have played in crisis management while working at the UN
and AU. This gave a broad picture of the
efforts of AU in crisis management. A
focused group discussions with some diplomats and other relevant people were
also utilized as a means of acquiring data.
The researcher also administered questionnaires
to some lecturers of strategic studies at Ahmadu Bello University Zaria,
Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna, University of Abuja and National Defence
College Abuja. Some questionnaires were
also administered to some military personnel in Kaduna, Abuja and Jaji
cantonment that had participated in AU PSO.
Additionally, the researcher used his personal experience having served
as a member of Nigerian Battalion (NIBATT) 10, AMIS from February to July 2006.
Secondary
sources were obtained from the libraries at AFCSC Jaji, NDC Abuja, Nigerian
Institute of International Affairs Lagos and and the Kaduna State Library. The
Internet was also extensively used. Such sources included books, unpublished
works, journals, magazines, newspapers, lecture texts and seminar papers. Others included official documents of the AU
and some IGO’s.
1.9.6 Methods of Data Analysis
Data collected was analysed graphically using tables and
charts. This gave a symbolic
representation of the data gathered.
Statistical method using Chi-square was also used to test whether the
hypotheses were to be accepted or not. One of the weaknesses of the methodology
used is that the researcher might not have come in contact with the most
appropriate respondents that have the right information during the survey. Secondly, the respondents might be reluctant
to disclose their true feelings particularly on sensitive issues, like policies
on crisis management. Finally, some
respondents might have faked their responses to the research questionnaires
just to satisfy the researcher’s need.
However, using various instruments for data collection, gaps that might
have emanated from any of the instruments used were taken care of. This enhanced the reliability of the
methodology adopted in this work.
1.10 PROPOSITIONS
1. AU mechanisms
for conflict resolutions are deficient.
2. The
AU like OAU uses the Euro-centric model of conventional security strategy for
conflict management.
3. It
is time to apply the economic developmental approach or grand strategy as a
mechanism for AU’s conflict management.
1.11 CONCEPTUAL
CLARIFICATION
For the purpose of this study the
following terms are defined as follows:
1. Conflict: Conflict is a situation in which 2 or
more human beings desire goals which they perceive as being obtainable by one
or the other, but not both, each party is mobilizing energy to obtain a goal, a
desired object or situation and each party perceives the other as a barrier or
threat to the goal.
2. Conflict Prevention: Conflict prevention activities are normal
conducted under Chapter VI of the UN Charter. They range from diplomatic
initiatives to preventative deployment of forces intended to prevent disputes
from escalating into armed conflicts or from spreading. Conflict prevention can
also include fact-finding missions, consultation, warnings, inspections and
monitoring. Preventive deployment within the framework of conflict prevention
is the deployment of operational forces possessing sufficient deterrence
capabilities to avoid a conflict.
3. Crisis: Crisis is an extreme situation of conflict which has reached a
turning point, where critical decisions have to be taken or else the conflict
escalates to a point of extreme violence. It is a degenerated state of
conflict, where threats to human security, intense violence, characterized by
fighting, death, injury and large scale-displacement of populations among
others, occur.
4. Crisis Management: Crisis management refers to measures to
identify, acquire and plan the use of resources needed to anticipate, prevent,
and/or resolve a crisis or the threat of a crisis. It involves measures aimed
at de-escalating crisis situation and bringing cessation of violence. The necessary
agencies of law and order are therefore used to contain such situations. These
include the police and members of the armed force to identify, acquire and plan
the use of resources needed to anticipate, prevent, and/or resolve a crisis or
the threat of a crisis. The central issue is balance between national strategy,
interests and objectives, and actions taken to prevent war.
5. Humanitarian Operations: Humanitarian operations are conducted to
relieve human suffering. Military humanitarian activities may accompany, or be
in support of humanitarian operations conducted by specialized civilian
organizations.
6. Peace: Peace
is a process involving activities that are directly or indirectly linked to
increasing development and reducing conflict, both within specific societies
and in the wider international community.
7. Peace Building: Peace building covers actions which support political, economic,
social and military measures as well as structures, aiming to strengthen and
solidify political settlement in order to redress the causes of conflict. This
includes mechanisms to identify and support structure which tend to consolidate
peace, advance a sense of confident and well being, and support economic
reconstruction.
8. Peace Enforcement: Peace Enforcement (PE) operations are
coercive in nature and undertaken under Chapter VII of UN Charter when the
consent of any of the major parties to the conflict is uncertain. They are
designed to maintain and re-establish
peace or enforce the terms specified in the mandate.
9. Peace Keeping: Peacekeeping (PK) operations are general undertaken under Chapter
VI of the UN Charter with consent of all the major parties to a conflict, to
monitor and facilitate the implementation of a peace agreement.
10. Peace Making: Peacemaking covers the diplomatic activities conducted after the
commencement of a conflict aimed at establishing a cease-fire or a rapid
peaceful settlement. They can include the provision of good offices, mediation,
conciliation, diplomatic pressure, isolation and sanctions.
11. Peace
Support Operations: Peace Support
Operations (PSO) are multi-functional operations involving military forces as
well as diplomatic and humanitarian agencies. They are designed to achieve
humanitarian goals or a long-term political settlement, and are conducted
impartially in support of a mandate. These include peacekeeping, peace
enforcement, conflict prevention, peacemaking, peace building and humanitarian
operations.
12. Preventive Diplomacy: Preventive diplomacy is the attempt to
make official policy out of conflict prevention. It is defined as actions taken
to prevent disputes arising between parties, to prevent existing disputes from
escalating into crisis and to limit the spread of the latter when they occur.
13. Violence: Violence is the detrimental use of legally and morally
prohibited force against humanity by humanity. It involves the illegitimate or
unauthorized use of force to effect decisions against the will or desires of
others.
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