NIGERIAN PEACEKEEPING MISSION UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE UN SECURITY COUNCIL FROM 1960 TO 2010: A STUDY OF SIERRA LEAONE
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NIGERIAN PEACEKEEPING MISSION UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE UN SECURITY COUNCIL FROM 1960 TO 2010: A STUDY OF SIERRA LEAONE
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Historical Background
Nigeria: Land and the People
Sierra Leone:
Land and the People The Objectives of the Study
Statement of the Problem
Literature Review
Scope of the
Study Significance of the Study
Research Methodology End Notes
CHAPTER TWO
NIGERIAN FOREIGN POLICY AND PEACEKEEPING
MISSION
Introduction
Concept of Foreign Policy
Nigerian Foreign Policy Objectives
Principles of Nigerian Foreign Policy
Concept of Peacekeeping
Nigeria and Peacekeeping Mission
End Notes
CHAPTER THREE
NIGERIAN
PEACEKEEPING MISSION IN SIERRA LEONE,
1991 TO 2000
Introduction
The Sierra Leonean Civil
War
Causes of the Sierra Leonean Civil
War
Colonial Legacy
Economic Factor
Diamond Factor
Liberian Factor
Nigeria and the ECOMOG
Chronology of events and Nigerian intervention in Sierra Leone:
Conclusion
End Notes
CHAPTER FOUR
NIGERIA’S
INTERVENTION IN SIERRA LEONE: ACHIEVEMENTS, CHALLENGES AND PERCEPTIONS OF THE PARTIES INVOLVED
Introduction Achievements Challenges
Perception of others
CHAPTER FIVE
Summary
Conclusion
Bibliography
NIGERIAN PEACEKEEPING MISSION UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE UN SECURITY COUNCIL FROM 1960 TO 2010: A STUDY OF SIERRA LEAONE
ABSTRACT
The
study examines the historical development of Nigerian peacekeeping mission under the auspices of the United Nations
Security Council from 1960 to 2009 using Sierra Leone as a case study. Furthermore, it discusses the concept, nature and general principles of peacekeeping; examined the foreign policy objectives
of Nigeria in relation to her peacekeeping mission; examine the
contributions of Nigerian peacekeeping mission to the installment of peace and stability in Sierra Leone between 1991 and 2000; and review the major challenges facing Nigeria peacekeeping mission.
Historical research method was employed in this study. Both primary and secondary source materials were used by the
researcher. The study established that Nigeria’s peacekeeping mission has been beneficial to the country especially in the
projection of her
public diplomacy and foreign
power abroad.
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Historical Background
The history of Nigerian peacekeeping mission began in 1960
when
she joined the United Nations.1 Since then, Nigeria has been
unequivocally committed to the goals, principles and objectives of the United Nations. This is evident in her contributions towards
the
promotion and maintenance of international peace and
security. Beginning with the Mission in the Republic of Congo in 1960,2 Nigerian armed battalions have meritoriously served in
many UN regional peacekeeping missions
around the world.
Thus, between 1960 and 2010, Nigeria has been actively
involved in various ways in the struggle against disintegration of
the
African continent. This made her to champion the establishment of the Economic Community of West African States
[ECOWAS
(1975)], the OrganizatioPEACEKEEPINGn of African
Unity [OAU (1963), now AU (2001)], the Non-Aligned Movement,
and
other organizations concerned with bringing peace to regions
and
peoples across the world.3
Moreover, Nigeria contributed significant financial backing, troops and resources that made ECOMOG’s creation possible. Nigeria also spearheaded the military and diplomatic
engagements to restore and maintain peace in Congo, Liberia,
Sudan, Sierra Leone and a host of others countries. In particular,
Nigeria’s reputation as a regional stabilizer, conciliator, and peace builder in the West African sub-region – using the Sierra Leone
peacekeeping experience, remains
unmatched.4
Nigeria’s positive and successful intervention in the Sierra
Leonean civil war and the restoration of democracy under the auspices of the ECOWAS Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) and also the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone(UNMSIL) makes Nigeria to be a major player towards global peace, security and
stability.
Nigeria’s long-term chairmanship of the UN Special Committee against Apartheid; and its leadership of peacekeeping missions in
Chad
(1979-82), Liberia (1990-98), Sierra Leone (1991-2000), Guinea
Bissau (1998-00) and Cotê d’Ivoire (2000-Date) are all reflections of its commitment and role to peace building, peace keeping, and conflict resolution.
Focusing on Nigeria peacekeeping mission in Sierra Leone under the auspices
of the United Nations, this research looks
at
the Sierra Leonean crisis and Nigeria’s intervention in installing
peace, first, through ECOWAS Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) and
later through United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone(UNMSIL). The research interest is basically on the contributions of Nigeria to
peacekeeping mission around the regions of the world using
Sierra Leone as a case study.
Nigeria is an amalgam of ancient Kingdoms, Caliphates, Empires and City-states with a long history of organised societies.
Its
boundaries were drawn as a result of trade (from slavery to
pepper or ivory) and overseas territorial ambitions of Western European powers in the 19 th century. The name Nigeria was
adopted in 1898 to designate the British Protectorates on the River Niger.5
Some scholars contend that Nigeria contains more historic cultures and empires than any other nation in Africa.6 The history
of the Nigerian people extends backward in time for some three
millennia. Archaeological evidence, oral traditions, and written documentation establish the existence of dynamic societies and well-developed political systems whose history had an important influence on colonial rule and has continued to shape independent
Nigeria. Nigerian history is fragmented in the sense that it evolved
from a variety of traditions, but many of the most outstanding
regionally dominant ethnic groups--the Hausa in the north, the
Yoruba in the west, and the Igbo
in the east.7
Geographically, Nigeria is located in western Africa on the Gulf of Guinea and has a total area of 923,768 km2 (356,669 sq mi),8 Nigeria borders the Gulf of Guinea (bights of Benin and Biafra) in
the
south; Cameroon in the east, Chad in the northeast, Niger in the north, and Benin to the west.9 The topography have five major
geographic divisions: low coastal zone along Gulf of Guinea; succeeded northward by hills and low plateaus; Niger-Benue river valley; broad stepped plateau stretching to northern border with
highest elevations over 1,200 meters; mountainous zone along eastern border, which includes country's highest point (2,042 meters).10
Historically speaking, all evidence suggests the early
settlement of Nigeria as early as 10, 000 years old due to a fossil
distinctive artifacts is that of the Nok people (400 B.C-200 A.D.)12.
Other historical developments in pre-colonial Nigeria include the Yoruba kingdoms of Ifẹ and
Oyo in southwestern Nigeria which
became prominent in the 12th and 14th century respectively.13 In
the
northern part of the country, Kano and Katsina has recorded
history dating back to around 999. Hausa kingdoms and the Kanem-Bornu Empire prospered
as trade posts between
North
and
West Africa.14 The Kingdom of Nri of the Igbo people started in
the 10th century until it lost its sovereignty to the British in 1911. It is the oldest kingdom in Nigeria.15
In the 1800s, the British started to reside in parts of these kingdoms and empires. In 1914, Nigeria was formed by combining
the
Northern and Southern Protectorates and the Colony of Lagos.
Between 1914 and 1922, Nigeria was presided over by a Governor-
General. In 1922, as part of the constitution of the time, the British
council.16
In 1951, a new constitution elevated the provinces
to regional status. The National Council of Nigeria and the
Cameroons (NCNC) had control of the Eastern Region government, the Northern Peoples Congress (NPC) had control of
the
Northern Region,
and the Action Group (AG) had control of
the
Western Region. By 1957, the Eastern and Western Regions
attained self-governing status. In 1959, the Northern Region attained self-governing status.
On October 1 1960, Nigeria obtained it's independence. At this
time, Northern and Southern Cameroon were given the option
of staying as part of Nigeria or leaving Nigeria. Southern Cameroon decided to leave Nigeria, but Northern Cameroon
stayed. 17
Also, on October 7, 1960, Nigeria was admitted to the United
peacekeeping operating in Zaire in the early 1960s. Later on, the
main thrust of Nigeria's activism on the world stage was to
promote peace, maintain stability and peacekeeping as witnessed
in Sierra Leone in 1999.
Timeline of Nigerian history shows that the country too has undergo series of internal crisis such as Census Crisis, coups and
counter coups, civil war, religious crisis, ethnic conflicts, etc. However, despite these crises, Nigeria still grows stronger and remains the backbone for peace operations in the African sub- region.
Sierra Leone: Land and the People
The Republic of Sierra Leone is a country in west Africa. It is bordered by Guinea to the north and east, Liberia to the southeast,
and
the Atlantic Ocean to the west and southwest. Sierra Leone covers
a
total area
of
71,740 km2 (27,699 sq mi)19 and has
a
11th
1792 and became a British colony in 1808.20
Sierra Leone is now
a constitutional republic comprising three provinces
and the Western Area; which are further divided into fourteen
districts.
The
country has a tropical climate, with a diverse environment
ranging
from savannah to
rainforests.
Freetown is the
capital,
largest city and economic center. The other major cities are Bo, Kenema, Koidu Town and Makeni.20
Sierra Leone is rich in mineral resources, possessing some of the rarest and most valuable mineral types in the world, many of which are found in significant quantities. The country has relied on
mining, especially diamonds, for its economic base; it is among
the
Top 10 diamond producing nations in the world, and mineral
exports remain the main foreign currency earner. Sierra Leone is
also among the largest producers of titanium and bauxite, and a major producer of gold. The country has one of the world's largest
Sherbro, Temne and Limba, and Tyra peoples, and later the Mende22 who knew the country as Romarong, and the Kono who
settled in the east of the country. In 1462, it was visited by the
Portuguese explorer Pedro da Cintra, who dubbed it Serra de Leão, meaning "Lion Mountains".23
Sierra Leone later became an important centre of the
transatlantic trade in slaves until March 11th 1792 when Freetown was founded by the Sierra Leone Company as
a home for formerly
enslaved African Americans. In 1808, Freetown became a British
Crown Colony,
and in 1896, the interior of the country became a
British Protectorate in 1961, the two combined and gained
independence.24
The Sierra Leone Civil War began in 1991 and resolved in
2000 after the Nigerian-led United Nations troops were heavily
reinforced by a British force and other peacekeeping forces.
The objectives of
this study are to:
i.
Discuss the concept, nature and general principles of
peacekeeping
ii.
Examine the foreign policy objectives of Nigeria in relation to
her peacekeeping mission
iii.
Discuss the history of Nigeria’s participation
in
peacekeeping mission under the auspices of the United Nations Security Council up to year 2010 with focus on the Sierra Leonean Civil War
iv.
Examine the contributions of Nigerian peacekeeping mission
to
the installment of peace and stability in Sierra Leone between 1991 and 2000
v.
Review the major challenges facing Nigeria peacekeeping mission
While efforts have been made by some scholars to document
Nigerian peacekeeping missions, much is yet to be covered on the challenges facing Nigerian peacekeeping under the auspices of the
UN Security Council. That is why this research is set to examine Nigeria peacekeeping mission under the auspices of the UN
Security Council using Sierra Leone as case study.
Literature Review
There is plethora of works on peacekeeping missions especially those relating to the United Nations. However, much is
yet to be documented on Nigeria peacekeeping mission in the African region. To make this research meaningful and organized, the review of literature is in two parts: first is the review of works on the UN peacekeeping mission and secondly, review
of literature of Nigerian peacekeeping mission between 1960 and 2010.
peacekeeping has proven to be one of the most effective tools
available to the UN to assist host countries navigate the difficult path from conflict to peace. For instance, M. R. Berdal and S.
Economides, United Nations interventionism, 1991-2004,25 makes a good
review as it analyses the nature of peacekeeping and the
guiding principles of UN peacekeeping. M. R. Berdal and S.
Economides noted that UN peacekeeping has unique strengths,
including legitimacy, burden sharing, and an ability to deploy and sustain troops and police from around the globe, integrating them
with civilian peacekeepers to advance multidimensional mandates. Moreover, UN Peacekeepers provide security and the political and peace building support to help countries make the
difficult, early transition from conflict to peace. While UN
Peacekeeping is guided by three basic principles, Consent of the
parties; Impartiality; and Non-use of force except in self-defence
background to UN peacekeeping mission, it does not attempt to chronicle UN peacekeeping mission since its foundation. Nevertheless, it did not touch basic areas of peacekeeping that this research benefits from.
D. S. Sorenson and P. C.Wood The politics of peacekeeping in
the post-cold war era,26 looked at peacekeeping not only as a
means to maintain peace and security, but also to facilitate the
political process, protect civilians, assist in the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of former combatants; support the organization of elections, protect and promote human rights and assist in restoring the rule of law. The work highlights the
majors peacekeeping mission of the UN which are currently 15
UN peace operations deployed on four continents. Attention is
not given to specific peacekeeping missions such as the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone which faults the work as over
United Nations Peacekeeping27 which provides a comprehensive analysis of the evolution of UN peacekeeping. United Nations peacekeeping, according to Marrack was initially developed
during the Cold War as a means of resolving conflicts between states by deploying unarmed or lightly armed military personnel
from a number of countries, under UN command, to areas where
warring parties were in need of a neutral party to observe the peace process. Peacekeepers could be called in when the major
international powers (the five permanent members of the Security
Council) tasked the UN with bringing closure to conflicts threatening regional stability and international peace and security.
These included a number of so-called "proxy wars" waged by client
states of the superpowers. As of February 2009, there have
been
63 UN peacekeeping operations since 1948. While Marrack has tried to chronicle the UN peacekeeping missions since 1948,
peacekeeping.
The second part of the review deals with review of literature on
Nigerian peacekeeping mission between 1960 and 2010.
J.K. Muhammad
The Role of Nigeria in
Peace
Building,
Conflict
Resolution, and Peacekeeping since 196028 chronicles Nigeria’s effort
at
peacekeeping since 1960. To Muhammad, Nigeria’s
effort at peace building has been predicated principally on the pursuit of
domestic security through the promotion of peaceful relations between herself and neighbours, and between neighbours themselves. It is against this background that Nigeria’s role in
peace building across Africa should be examined. Nigeria strives to put its neighbours at ease and attempts to stave off problems that could arise especially over inherited colonial boundaries by establishing bilateral agreements as the case of relations with
Equatorial Guinea since 1988 demonstrate. The dominant role in
clearest indications of this peace building role However, Muhammad did not focus his attention on one particular peacekeeping effort that Nigeria carried out such as that of Sierra Leone.
J. D.Chinade, Nigeria and the United Nations: The Past, the
Present and The Future 29 presents a lucid explanation of Nigeria’s
involvement in the UN peacekeeping and argues for the inclusion
of Nigeria in the permanent member of the security council. It
traces the active roles played by Nigeria in installing peace in war
torn zones and in building peace among African states. This work,
though logical in its presentation is not
adequate to analyzing
Nigeria’s involvement in peacekeeping mission under the auspices of
the UN Security Council.
A. Adebajo, Building peace in West Africa: Liberia, Sierra Leone,
and
Guinea-Bissau30 , is generally regarded as authority in
Nigeria
has done the same under ECOWAS (ECOMOG), and lately under the African Union. According to Adebajo, though involvement in
peacekeeping operations is about as old as Nigeria, it is shocking that fifty years after, the nation is just making efforts to develop a full-fledged policy on peacekeeping. While Adebajo’s work makes a good background for this
study.
Generally, some of the peace initiatives that Nigeria have
been
involved in includes: Congo (ONUC) 1960-1964, Battalion
operations; New Guinea
(UNSF) 1962-1963, Military Observers; Tanzania (Bilateral agreement) 1964, Battalion operations; India-
Pakistan (UNIPOM) 1965-1966, Military Observers; Lebanon
(UNIFIL) 1978-1983, Battalion operations and Staff Officers; Chad
(HARMONY I, bilateral agreement) 1981-1982, Battalion
operations and Staff Officers; Chad (HARMONY II, OAU) 1982-
1983, Brigade operations; Iran-Iraq
(UNIIMOG) 1988-1991,
Angola (UNAVEM II) 1991-1992, Military Observers; Sierra Leone (NATAG) 1991, Training Team; Angola (UNAVEM III) 1992-1995,
Detachment; Namibia (UNTAG) 1989-1990, Military Observers;
Western Sahara (MINURSO) 1991, Military Observers; Cambodia
(UNTAC) 1992- 1993, Military Observers; Somalia (UNOSOM)
1992-1994, Battalion operations and Staff Officers; Former
Republic of Yugoslavia (UNPROFOR) 1992, Battalion operations
and
Staff Officers; Mozambique (ONUMOZ) 1992 Military
Observers; Rwanda (UNAMIR) 1993, Battalion operations;
Gambia (NATAG) 1993, Training Team; Aouzo Strip (UNASOG)
1994, Military Observers; Israel (UNTSO) 1995, Military Observers;
Liberia – ECOMOG; Sierra Leone – UNMIL; and Dafur peace
initiative.
Scope of the Study
This study intends to cover Nigerian peacekeeping missions up to
à-vis
Nigerian peacekeeping efforts in the various peacekeeping initiatives of the UN. However, due to the complex nature of the study area (1960 to 2010), special attention is given to Nigerian peacekeeping mission in Sierra Leone and will not cover all the
major peacekeeping efforts
of Nigeria. The study therefore looks
at the various capacities where Nigeria have served to transformed
war
torn regions into peaceful areas under the auspices of the UN Security Council using Sierra Leon as
a case study.
Significance of the Study
This study is very important for certain reasons.
First, it historicizes Nigeria peacekeeping mission since 1960
thereby shedding more right on the dynamics that characterized Nigeria foreign
policy objectives
on her African neighbours.
Secondly, it is useful to scholars especially diplomatic historians, political scientists, economists, international relations
students and peace experts in
their research.
information on the domestic factors that has been influencing Nigeria peacekeeping mission since Independence.
Finally, the political and military class will learn, through
this study, the need for them to be patriotic in keeping Nigeria’s arrow head in the international arena. Apart from the personal satisfaction which this study will give the researcher, I hope that it
will
be a source of reference
to other researchers in similar area. Research Methodology
This study will make use of findings from both primary and
secondary sources. The primary sources include written documents such as official government publications, letters,
correspondence, documentaries and newspapers. Added to these
are descriptive accounts
of some Nigerians
who
participated in the peacekeeping operation during the Sierra Leone Civil War. Interviews will
also be conducted with those considered
International Relations
to complement the other sources.
Furthermore, this research work depends largely on archival
materials both online and offline
- visiting office of the United
Nations here in Nigeria to gather relevant materials on the study. Official publications published on the websites
will
also be used in interpreting the events and actions of actors that were involved in the peacekeeping process in Sierra Leone.
Books, journal articles, conference proceedings, seminar papers and other related publications will be used in gathering secondary information for this
research.
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